Reading Database T1P1

one function of the dictionary was to enable its student to convey an impression of fine learning.

to convey an impression

Beyond the practical need to make order out of chaos

practical need

who were anxious to define and circumscribe the various worlds to conquer- lexical as well as social and commercial.

as well as social and commercial.

His approach to the problems that had worried writers throughout the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries was intensely practical.

His approach

to the problems

was intensely practical.

Johnson decided he did not need an academy to settle arguments about language.

to settle arguments

He was to be paid ￡1,575 in instalments, and from this he took money to rent 17 Gough Square, in which he set up his 'dictionary workshop'.

be paid ￡1,575 in instalments

James Boswell, his biographer, described the garret where Johnson worked as 'fitted up like a counting house' with a long desk running down the middle at which the copying clerks would work standing up.

described the garret

fitted up like a counting house

copying clerks would work standing up

Unlike his predecessors, Johnson treated English very practically, as a living language, with many different shades of meaning.

Unlike his predecessors

with many different shades of meaning.

He adopted his definitions on the principle of English common law-according to precedent. After its publication, his Dictionary was not seriously rivalled for over a century.

He adopted his definitions on

the principle of English common law-according

to precedent

seriously rivalled

After many vicissitudes the Dictionary was finally published on 15 April 1775

vicissitudes

The fact that Johnson had taken on the Academies of Europe and matched them (everyone knew that forty French academics had taken forty years to produce the first French national dictionary) was cause for much English celebration.

had taken on

the Academies of Europe

and matched them

was cause for much English celebration.

It took into account subtleties of meaning.

account subtleties of

Johnson had worked for nine years, 'with little assistance of the learned, and without any patronage of the great; not in the soft obscurities of retirement, or under the shelter of academic bowers, but amidst inconvenience and distraction, in sickness and in sorrow'.

with little assistance of the learned

without any patronage of the great

not in the soft obscurities of retirement

or under the shelter

of academic bowers

amidst inconvenience and distraction

It is the cornerstone of Standard English, an achievement which, in James Boswell's words, 'conferred stability on the language of his country'.

conferred stability on the language of his country

Johnson had been planning to write a dictionary for several years.

several years.

Johnson only received payment for his Dictionary on its completion.

on its completion.

It was famous because of the large number of people involved.

of people involved

It focused mainly on language from contemporary texts

from contemporary texts

Reading Database T1P2

Nature or Nurture?

A few years ago, in one of the most fascinating and disturbing experiments in behavioral psychology, Stanley Milgram of Yale University tested 40 subjects from all walks of life for their willingness to obey instructions given by a 'leader' in a situation in which the subjects might feel a personal distaste for the actions they were called upon to perform.

most fascinating and disturbing

willingness to obey instructions given

they were called upon to perform

Specifically, Milgram told each volunteer 'teacher-subject' that the experiment was in the noble cause of education, and was designed to test whether or not punishing pupils for their mistakes would have a positive effect on the pupils' ability to learn.

in the noble cause of education

whether or not

he supposed 'pupil' was in reality an actor hired by Milgram to simulate receiving the shocks by emitting a spectrum of groans, screams and writhings together with an assortment of statements and expletives denouncing both the experiment and the experimenter.

emitting a spectrum of groans

screams and writhings together

with an assortment of statements and expletives

denouncing both the experiment and the experimenter.

beginning at the lowest level and increasing in severity with each successive wrong answer.

in severity with each successive

As the experiment unfolded

The teacher-subjects were instructed to

As the experiment unfolded, the pupil would deliberately give the wrong answers to questions posed by the teacher, thereby bringing on various electrical punishments, even up to the danger level of 300 volts and beyond.

would deliberately give

Many of the teacher-subjects balked at administering the higher levels of punishment, and turned to Milgram with questioning looks and or complaints about continuing the experiment.

balked at administering the higher levels of punishment

underestimated the teacher-subjects' willingness to comply with experimental procedure.

underestimated

to comply with experimental procedure

One's first inclination might be to argue that there must be some sort of built-in animal aggression instinct that was activated by the experiment, and that Milgram's teacher-subjects were just following a genetic need to discharge this pent-up primal urge onto the pupil by administering the electrical shock.

first inclination

to argue that

some sort of built-in animal aggression instinct

discharge this pent-up primal urge

Reading Database T1P3

choose NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer,

statement

contradicts

the claims of the writer

Environmentalists take a pessimistic view of the world for a number of reasons.

take a pessimistic view of

The number of starving people in the world has increased in recent years.

starving people

They have developed a hit-list of our main fears

a hit-list of

What aspect of scientific research does the writer express concern about in paragraph 4?

aspect of

writer express concern

First, energy and other natural resources have become more abundant, not less so, since the book 'The Limits to Growth' was published in 1972 by a group of scientists.

more abundant

not less so

The Limits to Growth

Second, more food is now produced per head of the world's population than at any time in history

food

produced per head of

Third, although species are indeed becoming extinct, only about 0.7% of them are expected to disappear in the next 50 years, not 25-50%, as has so often been predicted

expected to

been predicted

And finally, most forms of environmental pollution either appear to have been exaggerated, or are transient - associated with the early phases of industrialization and therefore best cured not by restricting economic growth, but by accelerating it.

are transient

associated with

and therefore best cured

One form of pollution - the release of greenhouse gases that causes global warming - does appear to be a phenomenon that is going to extend well into our future, but its total impact is unlikely to pose a devastating problem.

is going to

a devastating problem

A bigger problem may well turn out to be an inappropriate response to it.

well turn out to be

inappropriate response

Yet opinion polls suggest that many people nurture the belief that environmental standards are declining and four factors seem to cause this disjunction between perception and reality.

opinion poll

suggest

nurture the belief

cause this disjunction

perception and reality.

One is the lopsidedness built into scientific research. Scientific funding goes mainly to areas with many problems. That may be a wise policy, but it will also create an impression that many more potential problems exist than is the case.

lopsidedness

The writer quotes from the Worldwide Fund for Nature to illustrate how

quotes from

to illustrate how

Secondly, environmental groups need to be noticed by the mass media. They also need to keep the money rolling in. Understandably, perhaps, they sometimes overstate their arguments. In 1997, for example, the World Wide Fund for Nature issued a press release entitled: 'Two-thirds of the world's forests lost forever'. The truth turns out to be nearer 20%.

to be noticed

mass media

keep the money rolling in

Understandably

overstate their arguments

issued a press release

entitled

The writer quotes from the Worldwide Fund for Nature to illustrate how influential the mass media can be.

how influential the mass media can be.

Though these groups are run overwhelmingly by selfless folk, they nevertheless share many of the characteristics of other lobby groups.

overwhelmingly

selfless folk

nevertheless

lobby groups

That would matter less if people applied the same degree of skepticism to environmental lobbying as they do to lobby groups in other fields.

would matter less

applied the same degree

skepticism

environmental lobbying

A trade organization arguing for, say, weaker pollution controls is instantly seen as self-interested.

arguing for

seen as self-interested

Yet a green organization opposing such a weakening is seen as altruistic, even if an impartial view of the controls in question might suggest they are doing more harm than good.

seen as altruistic

an impartial view of

doing more harm than good

A third source of confusion is the attitude of the media. People are clearly more curious about bad news than good.

confusion

curious

Newspapers and broadcasters are there to provide what the public wants. That, however, can lead to significant distortions of perception.

An example was America's encounter with El Niño in 1997 and 1998. This climatic phenomenon was accused of wrecking tourism, causing allergies, melting the ski-slopes and causing 22 deaths. However, according to an article in the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, the damage it did was estimated at US 4 billion but the benefits amounted to some US ​19 billion. These came from higher winter temperatures (which saved an estimated 850 lives, reduced heating costs and diminished spring floods caused by meltwaters).

climatic phenomenon

accused of wrecking tourism, causing allergies

melting the ski-slopes and causing 22 deaths

estimated at

Reading Database T2P1

题目部分

Some plastics behave in a similar way to candlewax in that they melt under heat and can be moulded into new forms.

Some plastics behave in a similar way to candlewax

the ease with which the resin could fill the mould

ease

the resin could fill the mould

the facility with which the object could be removed from the mould

the facility with

正文部分

His invention, which he named 'Bakelite', was of enormous technological importance, and effectively launched the modern plastics industry.

of enormous technological importance

and effectively launched the modern plastics industry.

The term 'plastic' comes from the Greek plassein, meaning 'to mould'.

Greek plassein, meaning 'to mould'.

Some plastics are derived from natural sources, some are semi-synthetic (the result of chemical action on a natural substance), and some are entirely synthetic, that is, chemically engineered from the constituents of coal or oil.

are derived from natural sources

that is, chemically engineered from the constituents of coal or oil

Some are 'thermoplastic', which means that, like candlewax, they melt when heated and can then be reshaped.

melt

can then be reshaped.

Others are 'thermosetting': like eggs, they cannot revert to their original viscous state, and their shape is thus fixed for ever.

revert to their original viscous state

Bakelite had the distinction of being the first totally synthetic thermosetting plastic.

had the distinction of

The impetus behind the development of these early plastics was generated by a number of factors - immense technological progress in the domain of chemistry, coupled with wider cultural changes, and the pragmatic need to find acceptable substitutes for dwindling supplies of 'luxury' materials such as tortoiseshell and ivory.

The impetus behind the development of

immense technological progress

in the domain of

coupled with

acceptable substitutes

for dwindling supplies

Baekeland's interest in plastics began in 1885 when, as a young chemistry student in Belgium, he embarked on research into phenolic resins, the group of sticky substances produced when phenol (carbolic acid) combines with an aldehyde (a volatile fluid similar to alcohol)

he embarked on = he start on

phenolic resins

the group of sticky substances

combines with

He soon abandoned the subject, however, only returning to it some years later.

abandoned the subject

only returning to it some years later.

By 1905 he was a wealthy New Yorker, having recently made his fortune with the invention of a new photographic paper.

made his fortune with

While Baekeland had been busily amassing dollars, some advances had been made in the development of plastics.

busily amassing dollars

some advances had been made

The years 1899 and 1900 had seen the patenting of the first semi-synthetic thermosetting material that could be manufactured on an industrial scale

manufactured on an industrial scale

In purely scientific terms, Baekeland's major contribution to the field is not so much the actual discovery of the material to which he gave his name, but rather the method by which a reaction between phenol and formaldehyde could be controlled, thus making possible its preparation on a commercial basis.

In purely scientific terms

actual discovery

but rather the method

thus making possible its preparation on a commercial basis

On 13 July 1907, Baekeland took out his famous patent describing this preparation, the essential features of which are still in use today.

describing this preparation

essential features ≈ principle

The original patent outlined a three-stage process, in which phenol and formaldehyde (from wood or coal) were initially combined under vacuum inside a large egg-shaped kettle.

initially combined under vacuum

kettle

The result was a resin known as Novalak, which became soluble and malleable when heated.

became soluble and malleable

The resin was allowed to cool in shallow trays until it hardened, and then broken up and ground into powder.

shallow trays

until it hardened

broken up and ground into powder

Other substances were then introduced: including fillers, such as woodflour, asbestos or cotton, which increase strength and moisture resistance, catalysts (substances to speed up the reaction between two chemicals without joining to either) and hexa, a compound of ammonia and formaldehyde which supplied the additional formaldehyde necessary to form a thermosetting resin.

a compound of

This resin was then left to cool and harden, and ground up a second time.

and ground up a second time.

The resulting granular powder was raw Bakelite, ready to be made into a vast range of manufactured objects. In the last stage, the heated Bakelite was poured into a hollow mould of the required shape and subjected to extreme heat and pressure, thereby 'setting' its form for life.

granular powder

subjected to extreme heat and pressure

thereby 'setting' its form for life.

The design of Bakelite objects, everything from earrings to television sets, was governed to a large extent by the technical requirements of the moulding process.

from earrings to television sets

was governed to

a large extent

The object could not be designed so that it was locked into the mould and therefore difficult to extract.

The object could not be designed so that it was locked into the mould and therefore difficult to extract.

A common general rule was that objects should taper towards the deepest part of the mould, and if necessary the product was moulded in separate pieces.

should taper towards the deepest part of the mould

Moulds had to be carefully designed so that the molten Bakelite would flow evenly and completely into the mould.

the molten Bakelite

Sharp corners proved impractical and were thus avoided, giving rise to the smooth, 'streamlined' style popular in the 1930s.

Sharp corners proved impractical

Baekeland's invention, although treated with disdain in its early years, went on to enjoy an unparalleled popularity which lasted throughout the first half of the twentieth century.

although..... verb ..... type of sentence

treated with disdain

an unparalleled popularit

It became the wonder product of the new world of industrial expansion - 'the material of a thousand uses'.

the wonder product

Being both non-porous and heat-resistant, Bakelite kitchen goods were promoted as being germ-free and sterilisable.

non-porous

heat-resistant

were promoted as

germ-free and sterilisable.

Electrical manufacturers seized on its insulating properties, and consumers everywhere relished its dazzling array of shades, delighted that they were now, at last, no longer restricted to the wood tones and drab browns of the pre-plastic era.

on its insulating properties

dazzling array of shades

restricted to

pre-plastic era

It then fell from favour again during the 1950s, and was despised and destroyed in vast quantities. Recently, however, it has been experiencing something of a renaissance, with renewed demand for original Bakelite objects in the collectors' marketplace, and museums, societies and dedicated individuals once again appreciating the style and originality of this innovative material.

fell from favour

despised and destroyed in vast quantities

renaissance

appreciating the style

Reading Database T2P2

题目部分

Current thinking on humour has largely ignored Aristotle’s view on the subject.

mei gao dong

正文部分

The writer Arthur Koestler dubbed it the luxury reflex: 'unique in that it serves no apparent biological purpose'.

matching question 14.

dubbed it the luxury reflex

unique in

serves no apparent

biological purpose

Plato expressed the idea that humour is simply a delighted feeling of superiority over others.

matching questions 15.

a delighted feeling

of superiority over others.

Kant and Freud felt that joke-telling relies on building up a psychic tension which is safely punctured by the ludicrousness of the punchline.

matching questions 16.

a psychic tension

punctured by

ludicrousness of the punchline

But most modern humour theorists have settled on some version of Aristotle's belief that jokes are based on a reaction to or resolution of incongruity, when the punchline is either a nonsense or, though appearing silly, has a clever second meaning.

matching question 17

have settled on

some version of Aristotle's belief

or resolution of incongruity

is either a nonsense or,

Graeme Ritchie, a computational linguist in Edinburgh, studies the linguistic structure of jokes in order to understand not only humour but language understanding and reasoning in machines. He says that while there is no single format for jokes, many revolve around a sudden and surprising conceptual shift. A comedian will present a situation followed by an unexpected interpretation that is also apt.

matching questions 18.

He says that while there is no single format for jokes, many revolve around a sudden and surprising conceptual shift. A comedian will present a situation followed by an unexpected interpretation that is also apt.

matching questions 19.

Rats produce ultrasonic squeaks to prevent their scuffles turning nasty. Chimpanzees have a 'play-face' - a gaping expression accompanied by a panting 'ah, ah' noise.

matching questions 20.

ultrasonic squeaks

scuffles turning nasty

Chimpanzees have a 'play-face'

a gaping expression

accompanied by a panting

Although Goel felt being inside a brain scanner was hardly the ideal place for appreciating a joke, he found evidence that understanding a joke involves a widespread mental shift. His scans showed that at the beginning of a joke the listener's prefrontal cortex lit up, particularly the right prefrontal believed to be critical for problem solving. But there was also activity in the temporal lobes at the side of the head (consistent with attempts to rouse stored knowledge) and in many other brain areas. Then when the punchline arrived, a new area sprang to life - the orbital prefrontal cortex. This patch of brain tucked behind the orbits of the eyes is associated with evaluating information.

matching questions 21\22\23

Reading Database T3P1

题目部分

details of the range of family types involved in an education programme

details of the range of family types

involved in an education programme

...continued with follow-up assistance in elementary schools

follow-up assistance

in elementary schools

正文部分

The report argued for enhanced equity of access and better funding for childcare and early childhood education institutions.

argued for

equity of access

better funding

Furthermore, research has shown that while every child is born with a natural curiosity, it can be suppressed dramatically during the second and third years of life.

with a natural curiosity

be suppressed dramatically

In an attempt to overcome that educational under-achievement, a nationwide programme called 'Headstart' was launched in the United States in 1965.

In an attempt to overcome

educational under-achievement

A lot of money was poured into it.

poured into it

Despite substantial funding, results have been disappointing.

Despite substantial funding

The 'Missouri' programme was predicated on research showing that working with the family, rather than bypassing the parents, is the most effective way of helping children get off to the best possible start in life.

was predicated on research

bypassing the parents

get off to the best possible

The four-year pilot study included 380 families who were about to have their first child and who represented a cross-section of socio-economic status, age and family configurations.

who were about to have their first child

The four-year pilot study

represented

cross-section of socio-economic status, age and family configurations.

Periodic check-ups of the child's educational and sensory development (hearing and vision) were made to detect possible handicaps that interfere with growth and development.

Periodic check-ups

sensory development

detect possible handicaps

interfere with

Medical problems were referred to professionals.

referred to

At the age of three, the children who had been involved in the 'Missouri' programme were evaluated alongside a cross-section of children selected from the same range of socio-economic backgrounds and family situations, and also a random sample of children that age.

were evaluated alongside

cross-section of

the same range of socio-economic backgrounds

The results were phenomenal.

phenomenal

By the age of three, the children in the programme were significantly more advanced in language development than their peers, had made greater strides in problem solving and other intellectual skills, and were further along in social development.

than their peers

greater strides

were further along in

Most important of all, the traditional measures of 'risk', such as parents' age and education, or whether they were a single parent, bore little or no relationship to the measures of achievement and language development.

bore little or no relationship

Child abuse was virtually eliminated.

abuse

virtually eliminated.

Children in the programme performed equally well regardless of socio-economic disadvantages.

performed equally well

regardless of

The one factor that was found to affect the child s development was family stress leading to a poor quality of parent-child interaction. That interaction was not necessarily bad in poorer families.

stress leading

to a poor quality of parent-child interaction.

That interaction was not necessarily bad

here is growing evidence in New Zealand that children from poorer socio-economic backgrounds are arriving at school less well developed and that our school system tends to perpetuate that disadvantage.

arriving at

school less well developed

perpetuate that disadvantage

The initiative outlined above could break that cycle of disadvantage.

initiative outlined

break that cycle of disadvantage.

The concept of working with parents in their homes, or at their place of work, contrasts quite markedly with the report of the Early Childhood Care and Education Working Group.

contrasts quite markedly

Their focus is on getting children and mothers access to childcare and institutionalised early childhood education.

access to

institutionalised early childhood education.

Education from the age of three to five is undoubtedly vital, but without a similar focus on parent education and on the vital importance of the first three years, some evidence indicates that it will not be enough to overcome educational inequity.

vital importance

evidence indicates

overcome educational inequity.

Reading Database T4P1

题目部分

Some of the disruptive effects of wilderness tourism

disruptive effects of wilderness tourism

Fragile regions and the reasons for the expansion of tourism there

Fragile

the expansion of

Traditional food-gathering in desert societies was distributed evenly over the year.

distributed evenly

正文部分

The market for tourism in remote areas is booming as never before. Countries all across the world are actively promoting their ‘wilderness’ regions - such as mountains, Arctic lands, deserts, small islands and wetlands - to high-spending tourists. The attraction of these areas is obvious: by definition, wilderness tourism requires little or no initial investment. But that does not mean that there is no cost.

actively promoting

to high-spending tourists

requires little or no initial investment

Note, this paragraph contains important information

There has also been a renaissance in communal cheese production in the area, providing the locals with a reliable source of income that does not depend on outside visitors.

a renaissance in communal cheese production